Search algorithms on networks are important tools for the organisation of large data sets. A key example is Google PageRank, which assigns a numerical weight to each webpage, with the purpose of measuring its relative importance.

A congestion game is a game where the cost of a player for using a resource depends on all the players using that resource.

A binary m x n array is said to satisfy the two-dimensional (2-D) hard square constraint if no row or column of the array contains ones in consecutive positions. Let N(m,n) denote the number of such arrays.

Data replication is commonly used for fault-tolerance in reliable distributed systems. In large-scale systems, it additionally provides low latency.